The climate challenge and the environmental impact of mobility

March 2024

The climate crisis in France

The term climate crisis refers to all the recent changes to the planet’s climate as a result of global warming, and the way in which these changes are disrupting and damaging ecosystems. The scientific world agrees that human activity is the main cause of this phenomenon through greenhouse gas emissions, the concentration of which rose in 2020 to 48% above its level before 1750 (pre-industrial period). Decarbonisation is therefore the main lever in the fight against global warming, because if global emissions are not reduced, we could see temperatures rise by 3°C by 2100, which would irreversibly change our ecosystems. Like other parts of the world, France is exposed to these changes and may suffer the consequences in a number of sectors, including agriculture, health, water, infrastructure and coastal areas. As far as agriculture is concerned, heat waves and drought could severely degrade the soil. It is estimated that over the period 2021-2050, this could increase from an average of 2 months to 4 months, while becoming more intense. Drought would also extend the risk of wildfire, which is currently concentrated around the Mediterranean, to the rest of France.

Mobility, the leading source of greenhouse gas emissions

The transport sector is defined as all activities related to the movement of people and goods. In France, it plays an important role in the economy, making a significant contribution to wealth creation and employment. However, it also generates considerable negative externalities, such as air pollution, road accidents and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The transport sector remains the largest emitter of GHGs in France, accounting for 28.7% of total emissions (note that air and sea transport are excluded from the national total by virtue of international conventions).

This upward trend contrasts with other sectors of the economy, such as industry, agriculture, residential and tertiary, which reduced their GHG emissions by 25% between 1995 and 2019, while those of the transport sector increased by 1.4%.

This indicates that in 2020, despite the disruption caused by the health crisis, the majority of transport emissions came from mobility. The term ‘mobility’ refers specifically to the movement of people, while the term ‘transport’ encompasses both the movement of people and goods. According to INSEE, in 2019, 62.8% of daily journeys were made by car, 23.7% on foot, 9.1% by public transport and 2.7% by bicycle2. On a national scale, GHG emissions from ‘soft’ mobility are so low that they are not taken into account in most of the reports, the main focus being on the impact of the private car. Generally speaking, emissions vary from one area to another due to various factors such as population density, available transport infrastructure and people’s travel habits. Walking and various forms of soft mobility are the norm in most urban areas, as distances are shorter. What’s more, these areas are sufficiently densely populated to justify the introduction of public transport systems. Rural areas, on the other hand, are more dependent on the car because of the greater distances involved. As a result, there are major differences in terms of mobility within the region. One example is the fact that the rate of cycleability can be as high as 30% in major cities, but no more than 1% in rural areas (Vélo & Territoires, 2022). Finally, a key element in understanding mobility emissions is the home-work journey. According to a CEREMA survey, they have a significant impact on local greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The areas studied show average individual daily emissions ranging from 3.4 to 5.6 kg of CO2 equivalent. This variability in emissions is high within the same area because of the different routines of the individuals living there: It is mainly working people in employment, particularly men, who have the highest emissions and who make the largest contribution to residents’ total emissions.

Other factors explaining the high levels of emissions include regional indicators of accessibility to employment. Long work-related journeys have an influence on the average level of emissions. Border regions with a high proportion of people working abroad and making long car journeys have high emissions. On the other hand, areas where employment is dense at regional level, where working people stay in their local employment area and where the use of low-carbon modes of transport is high, have lower average emissions.

Decarbonising mobility

By signing the Paris Agreement, a number of countries, including France, have committed to limiting the increase in average temperature to 2°C, and ideally to 1.5°C. In line with the recommendations of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), this objective means achieving global carbon neutrality in the second half of the 21st century. To better articulate its take on action, the Ministry of Ecological and Solidarity Transition introduced the Climate Plan, which set ambitious targets for the country, including achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Since the law of 8 November 2019 on energy and the climate, this objective is now enshrined in law. The law defines carbon neutrality as ‘a balance, within the national territory, between anthropogenic emissions by sources and anthropogenic absorptions by sinks of greenhouse gases’.

In practical terms, this means decarbonising, i.e. reducing emissions to 80 MtCO2e from 445 MtCO2e in 20183. As we have seen, in France, transport is the activity that contributes most to emissions (28.7%), half of which comes directly from mobility. Mobility is often dependent on fossil fuels, such as petrol and diesel, which emit carbon dioxide (CO2) when burnt. Decarbonising mobility refers to reducing the carbon emissions associated with means of transport. It involves developing more environmentally-friendly alternatives. According to CEEREMA, to reduce these emissions by 30% between 1990 and 2030, unit emissions would have to be cut by 15% and journeys would have to be reduced by 5%, while the occupancy rate would have to be increased by 15% to return to the levels of the 1980s. By 2050, additional measures should be taken to achieve a 90% reduction.

The overhaul of the governance of mobility was enacted in 2019 via the Loi d’Orientation des Mobilités (LOM). It has three objectives: to make everyday transport easier, cheaper and ‘cleaner’. To achieve this, it provides for major investment in mobility (€13.4 billion over the period 2017-2022) and improved accessibility through digital solutions. It also includes an end to sales of carbon-based fossil fuel cars by 2040, an ambitious cycling plan and the development of low-emission zones.

List of the LOM’s commitments to cleaner mobility

• The goal of carbon neutrality by 2050 is enshrined in law, in line with the Climate Plan, with a clear trajectory: -37.5% CO2 emissions by 2030 and a ban on the sale of cars using carbon-based fossil fuels by 2040.

• The conversion premium and the possibility of recharging electric vehicles anywhere, by increasing the number of recharging points by a factor of 5 between now and 2022: compulsory equipment in certain car parks, creation of a right to plug in, more than halving the cost of installation, etc.

• An unprecedented plan to triple the proportion of journeys made by bicycle: creation of a €350 million bicycle fund, the fight against theft with the gradual introduction of bicycle marking and secure parking, the creation of a sustainable mobility pass, the widespread introduction of ‘savoir-rouler’ at school, etc.

• A plan to make car-pooling an everyday solution, by allowing local authorities to subsidise car-poolers, opening up the possibility of creating reserved lanes on the outskirts of major cities, introducing a sustainable mobility package…

• Low-emission zones for cleaner air, enabling local authorities to restrict traffic to the least polluting vehicles, according to criteria of their choice. Already 23 local authorities, representing more than 17 million inhabitants, are committed to this approach in 2019.

• The contribution of the most polluting modes of transport to the financing of mobility: a reduction of 2 centimes in the exemption from domestic consumption tax on energy products (TICPE) for road hauliers and an unprecedented eco-contribution from the aviation sector.

Other environmental issues

In addition to its impact on the climate, transport also represents a major health issue for local authorities. Greenhouse gases are not the only atmospheric pollutants produced by transport, and road transport in particular accounts for between 65% and 100% of these emissions. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) has an impact on health and the environment: it irritates the respiratory tract and contributes to the acidification and eutrophication of the environment.

In 2019, road transport was responsible for more than half of NO2 emissions (51.8%). Despite a reduction in NO2 levels over the last 20 years, 19% of measuring stations located near road traffic recorded regulatory thresholds being exceeded in 2019. Fine particles (PM10 and PM2.5) are also emitted and have an impact on health: they are carcinogenic for humans and can cause respiratory and cardiovascular diseases. Despite a reduction in the content of particles with a diameter of less than 10μm (PM10) over the period 2007-2019, the concentration of PM10 remains 1.3 higher in the vicinity of road traffic than in the urban background.

The most striking consequence of air pollution is the number of premature deaths. In 2019, this will represent 307,000 people in the European Union and 7 million worldwide5. High concentrations of fine particles (PM2.5) also increase the number of respiratory illnesses and complications. This represents additional burdens and costs for the national health system, as well as lost productivity at work due to hospital admissions. Finally, high concentrations of pollutants reduce crop yields and have an impact on agricultural productivity.

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